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A comet tail—and coma—are features visible in comets when they are illuminated by the Sun and may become visible from Earth when a comet passes through the inner Solar System. As a comet approaches the inner Solar System, solar radiation causes the volatile materials within the comet to vaporize and stream out of the nucleus, carrying dust away with them. Separate tails are formed of dust and gases, becoming visible through different phenomena; the dust reflects sunlight directly and the gases glow from ionisation. Most comets are too faint to be visible without the aid of a telescope, but a few each decade become bright enough to be visible to the naked eye.

Tail formation[edit]

In the outer Solar System, comets remain frozen and are extremely difficult or impossible to detect from Earth due to their small size. Statistical detections of inactive comet nuclei in the Kuiper belt have been reported from the Hubble Space Telescope observations,^[1][2] but these detections have been questioned,^[3][4] and have not yet been independently confirmed. As a comet approaches the inner Solar System, solar radiation causes the volatile materials within the comet to vaporize and stream out of the nucleus, carrying dust away with them. The streams of dust and gas thus released form a huge, extremely tenuous atmosphere around the comet called the coma, and the force exerted on the coma by the Sun's radiation pressure and solar wind cause an enormous tail to form, which points away from the Sun.

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The streams of dust and gas each form their own distinct tail, pointing in slightly different directions. The tail of dust is left behind in the comet's orbit in such a manner that it often forms a curved tail called the antitail, only when it seems that it is directed towards the Sun. At the same time, the ion tail, made of gases, always points along the streamlines of the solar wind as it is strongly affected by the magnetic field of the plasma of the solar wind. The ion tail follows the magnetic field lines rather than an orbital trajectory. Parallax viewing from the Earth may sometimes mean the tails appear to point in opposite directions.^[5]

Size[edit]

While the solid nucleus of comets is generally less than 50 km across, the coma may be larger than the Sun, and ion tails have been observed to extend 3.8 astronomical units (570 Gm; 350×10⁶mi).^[6]

The Ulysses spacecraft made an unexpected pass through the tail of the comet C/2006 P1 (Comet McNaught), on February 3, 2007.^[7] Evidence of the encounter was published in the October 1, 2007, issue of The Astrophysical Journal.^[8]

Magnetosphere[edit]

The observation of antitails contributed significantly to the discovery of solar wind.^[9] The ion tail is the result of ultraviolet radiation ejecting electrons off particles in the coma. Once the particles have been ionised, they form a plasma which in turn induces a magnetosphere around the comet. The comet and its induced magnetic field form an obstacle to outward flowing solar wind particles. The comet is supersonic relative to the solar wind, so a bow shock is formed upstream of the comet (i.e. facing the Sun), in the flow direction of the solar wind. In this bow shock, large concentrations of cometary ions (called 'pick-up ions') congregate and act to 'load' the solar magnetic field with plasma. The field lines 'drape' around the comet forming the ion tail.^[10] (This is similar to the formation of planetary magnetospheres.)

Tail loss[edit]

If the ion tail loading is sufficient, then the magnetic field lines are squeezed together to the point where, at some distance along the ion tail, magnetic reconnection occurs. This leads to a 'tail disconnection event'.^[10] This has been observed on a number of occasions, notable among which was on the 20th. April 2007 when the ion tail of comet Encke was completely severed as the comet passed through a coronal mass ejection.^[11] This event was observed by the STEREO spacecraft.^[12] A disconnection event was also seen with C/2009 R1 (McNaught) on May 26, 2010.^[13]

Analogues[edit]

On January 29, 2013, ESA scientists reported that the ionosphere of the planet Venus streams outwards in a manner similar to 'the ion tail seen streaming from a comet under similar conditions.'^[14][15]

References[edit]

1143 Tale Of The Comet Pdf Free

1. ^Cochran, A. L.; Levison, H. F.; Stern, S. A.; Duncan, J. (1995). 'The Discovery of Halley-sized Kuiper Belt Objects Using the Hubble Space Telescope'. The Astrophysical Journal. 455: 342. arXiv:astro-ph/9509100. Bibcode:1995ApJ..455.342C. doi:10.1086/176581.
2. ^Cochran, A. L.; Levison, H. F.; Tamblyn, P.; Stern, S. A.; Duncan, J. (1998). 'The Calibration of the Hubble Space Telescope Kuiper Belt Object Search: Setting the Record Straight'. Astrophysical Journal Letters. 503 (1): L89. arXiv:astro-ph/9806210. Bibcode:1998ApJ..503L.89C. doi:10.1086/311515.
3. ^Brown, Michael E.; Kulkarni, S. R.; Liggett, T. J. (1997). 'An Analysis of the Statistics of the Hubble Space Telescope Kuiper Belt Object Search'. Astrophysical Journal Letters. 490 (1): L119. Bibcode:1997ApJ..490L.119B. doi:10.1086/311009.
4. ^Jewitt, David C.; Luu, Jane; Chen, J. (1996). 'The Mauna Kea-Cerro-Tololo (MKCT) Kuiper Belt and Centaur Survey'. The Astronomical Journal. 112 (3): 1225. Bibcode:1996AJ..112.1225J. doi:10.1086/118093.
5. ^McKenna, M. (May 20, 2008). 'Chasing an Anti-Tail'. Astronomy Sketch of the Day. Retrieved February 25, 2009.
6. ^Yeomans, Donald K. (2005). 'Comet'. World Book Online Reference Center. World Book. Archived from the original on April 29, 2005. Retrieved December 27, 2008.
7. ^'A chance encounter with a comet'. Astronomy. October 2, 2007.
8. ^Neugebauer; et al. (2007). 'Encounter of the Ulysses Spacecraft with the Ion Tail of Comet MCNaught'. The Astrophysical Journal. 667 (2): 1262–1266. Bibcode:2007ApJ..667.1262N. doi:10.1086/521019.
9. ^Biermann, L. (1963). 'The plasma tails of comets and the interplanetary plasma'. Space Science Reviews. 1 (3): 553. Bibcode:1963SSRv..1.553B. doi:10.1007/BF00225271.
10. ^ ^abCarroll, B. W.; Ostlie, D. A. (1996). An Introduction to Modern Astrophysics. Addison-Wesley. pp. 864–874. ISBN978-0-201-54730-6.
11. ^'The Sun Rips Off a Comet's Tail'. Science@NASA. October 1, 2007. Archived from the original on November 4, 2009. Retrieved October 20, 2009.
12. ^Eyles, C. J.; Harrison, R. A.; Davis, C. J.; Waltham, N. R.; Shaughnessy, B. M.; Mapson-Menard, H. C. A.; Bewsher, D.; Crothers, S. R.; Davies, J. A.; Rochus, P. (2009). 'The Heliospheric Imagers Onboard the STEREO Mission'. Solar Physics. 254 (2): 387–445. Bibcode:2009SoPh.254.387E. doi:10.1007/s11207-008-9299-0.
13. ^'Comet C/2009 R1 (McNaught) - Animation & Images'. Remanzacco Observatory. May 30, 2010. Retrieved June 7, 2011.
14. ^Staff (January 29, 2013). 'When A Planet Behaves Like A Comet'. ESA. Retrieved January 31, 2013.
15. ^Kramer, Miriam (January 30, 2013). 'Venus Can Have 'Comet-Like' Atmosphere'. Space.com. Retrieved January 31, 2013.

External links[edit]

• Comets at Curlie
• Comets page at NASA's Solar System Exploration
• International Comet Quarterly at Harvard.edu

by Richard Ingham, Véronique Martinache

But when the Rosetta mission last week reached a climax, the story had changed from the humdrum to an event that captivated the world.

It had become a tale of heroics in deep space, with the secrets of the Solar System at stake.

After a trek of 6.5 billion kilometres (four billion miles), alone in the bitter chill of deep space, the little robot Philae battled to survive and complete its task while its mother ship orbited anxiously above.

Drama and romance had been stitched into the fabric of the Rosetta mission way back in 1993. That was when European space ministers gave the risky, 1.3-billion-euro ($1.6-billion) scheme their approval.

But it took the two great information tools of the early 21st century—the Internet and social media—to bring these elements to the fore, and make the expedition relevant for billions.

'Rosetta marks a watershed' in the European Space Agency's strategy to connect with the public, ESA communications chief Fernando Doblas told AFP.

'We are living in a world where people no longer want to receive information passively. You have to be active in your information.'

Slick webcasts from mission control in Darmstadt, Germany combined with easy-on-the-astrophysics talks about the importance of the mission.

The scientists spoke mainly in Europe-accented English, using words that were simple but passionate. Not a white coat was in sight.

What was the point of the landing, they were asked.

Get this, they said: by analysing a comet, Philae would probe the primeval material of the Solar System.. the ancient water and carbon which may even have seeded Earth with the means to make life.

'Comets are treasure chests,' said Mark McCaughrean, senior ESA scientific advisor, before he fed us the jaw-dropping idea: 'We could be comet stuff ourselves.'

There were graphics and cartoons—including a hugely-followed series for children (www.esa.int/spaceinvideos/Vide … comet_landing)—and a competition to name the probe and its landing site. Download free the book of fate parinoosh saniee pdf software.

But it was the tweets that especially humanised the mission, creating a narrative of a plucky little scout and its caring mother.

'My #lifeonacomet has just begun,' Philae said as, alone in deep space, its battery power ebbing, it faded away like a sickly child.

'S'ok Philae, I've got it from here for now. Rest well..,' Rosetta said soothingly.

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The handle @Philae2014 notched up 383,000 followers and that of @ESA_Rosetta 277,000—a far greater total, combined, than @Madonna.

From Buck Rogers to robots

Providing a human dimension to space exploration is not, of course, new.

In the 'right stuff' days in the early 1960s, a disparate group of US pilots were recast as the Mercury Seven, representing America in the gladiatorial combat of outer space against the Soviets.

But until now, the media experts had failed to weave an emotional tale for unmanned exploration, which really is where the future lies in space.

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The narrative had invariably been about technical challenge and gee-whizzery—as seen in the video (www.youtube.com/watch?v=XRCIzZHpFtY) for NASA's Curiosity rover, which landed on Mars in 2012.

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If the human angle and social media were a savvy choice for the Philae landing, 'it wasn't an easy one to make' for an agency steeped in austere scientific tradition, admitted Dolbas.

And, like Philae's landing, the choice was not without risks.

London-born astrophysicist Matt Taylor—a colourful figure who has a tattoo of Philae on his leg—found himself in a tweetstorm for wearing a shirt with scantily-clad women on it, which critics lashed as sexist.

1143 Tale Of The Comet

Exhausted and stressed at the peak of the landing saga, Taylor shed tears on camera and apologised if he had caused anyone any offence. Yet that, too, told us that behind the science lies the humanity.

© 2014 AFP

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